Growing Pluralisation and Fragmentation of Policing Essay

This essay aims to explore Button’s (1996) claim that ‘the growing pluralisation and fragmentation of policing†¦has challenged the public police’s claim that to be the primary policing force’. In order to do so, it will provide a general definition of both the public and private policing bodies within the United Kingdom, followed by a brief look at the history of the public Police, their progression and integration with private agencies. The essay will go on to discuss pluralisation and fragmentation, and how these are reflected within the context of the topic. Finally it will identify how various financial constraints have resulted in cutbacks and forced ‘hybrid’ policing in many areas. It will conclude with a reiteration of the main points, supporting Buttons claim that the public Police are not the primary policing force. Within this essay it is not possible to draw a definitive distinction between public Police and private policing bodies or indeed the perimeters in which each work, it is however important to understand the difference between the Police and ‘policing’ – a social function that Reiner (ibid:722 in Button 1996) describes as: ‘An aspect of social control processes which occurs universally in all social situations in which there is at least the potential for conflict, deviance, or disorder.’ Today the word ‘Police’ is used in many civilised countries to describe an organisation whom uphold the law and order in society (Met Police, 2012). Button (1996) describes the Police as: ‘The body of men and women employed by the state who patrol the streets, deal with crime, and ensure order and who undertake a range of other social type functions’. It could it be reasonably argued that the primary difference between public and private police is legislative powers i.e. public police have powers of arrest for arrestable offences not committed within their view where there are reasonable grounds for suspicion (private police can`t make these kinds of arrests) (Citizens Advice Bureau 2012). Circa 1856 members of public, ordinarily the victims, largely conducted policing activities. Any person suspected of committing a crime would be taken to the ‘Parish Constable’, an unpaid position to uphold order (Victorian crime and punishment, 2006). The Police as we know them today were formed in 1829 following the collapse of the ‘Parish Constable’ system (Met Police, 2012). Home Secretary of the time, Sir Robert Peel, was responsible for passing the first Metropolitan Police act forming the Metropolitan Police force, although this only really came to fruition in 1839 when the new City of London Police took control of all independent police activities (Met Police, 2012). G4S (2012) explain that private Police enterprises started out as a very basic, 4-man bicycle team, providing a guard-protection force. ‘The earliest roots in the UK appeared in 1935 when a former cabinet minister launched ‘Night Watch Services’. Historically, pre World War II, private security was frowned upon, seen as thuggery, sneaks and spies with private interests, however, since the War private security has been accepted as a supplement to the much-overburdened public Police. More recently governments have actively encouraged the commercial private sector support to Police, accepting that the extensive and complex nature of crime requires more than the Police have to offer (Bayley and Shearing, 1996). To fully address Button’s statement, it is necessary to understand the definition of pluralisation and fragmentation, and importantly how this is represented within the context of the statement. It is generally accepted that, in many countries, ‘policing’ is now both authorised and delivered by diverse networks of commercial bodies, voluntary and community groups, individual citizens, national and local governmental regulatory agencies, as well as the public police (Jones and Newburn, 2006). Jones and Newburn (2006:6) continue, suggesting that there has always been an array of policing bodies however the last decade has seen a rapid increase in ‘visible’ policing providers. While Bayley and Shearing (1996) note that: ‘In the past 30 years the state’s monopoly on policing has been broken by the creation of a host of private and community-based agencies that prevent crime, deter criminality, catch law-breakers, investigate offences, and stop conflict. The police and policing have become increasingly distinct.’ It is this fragmentation or use of numerous agencies to uphold law and order within the community that Button refers to as pluralisation. Whilst we can say that policing bodies have been coexistent for some time; in recent years heavy financial constraints placed upon the public Police have forced a much larger, lateral, recruitment of private agencies to assist in back room and specialist Police departments. Newburn and Jones (2002) suggest that this may be due to: ‘Increasing constraints on police expenditure and that, as a consequence, other forms of provision have expanded to fill the gap.’ This largely came to the public eye in 1983 when the Home Office issued a circular (114/83, Manpower, Effectiveness and Efficiency) outlining the need for the Police force to demonstrate value for money in line with other public services (Smith and Henry, 2007:27 in Johnston, 1992). During the 1980’s Conservative administrations offered national police forces, financial incentives to, where possible, employ civilians in positions that did not require police power, training or experience (Jones and Newburn, 2002). This, however, is not a new concept, as explained by Jones, Newburn and Smith ((1994) in Jones and Newburn, 2002), ‘the employment of civilians in the police service has a long history, dating back to the early stages of this century’. Changes forced by financial shortages are highlighted by Houghton (2012), suggesting that due to budget constraints policing bodies have been forced to look at radical options such as privatisation as opposed to more common measures previously used like a minimum rate of change. Chief Superintendent Phil Kay was quoted in the Guardian (2012), as overseeing the joint West Midlands/Surrey â€Å"transformation† programme, designed to deal with the challenging financial conditions the force currently faced. As part of the programme West Midlands and Surrey constabularies intend to out source a variety of policing activities such as investigating crimes, developing cases, managing intelligence, as well as more traditional back-office functions, such as managing forensics, finance and human resources. In 2010/11 the Police Officer training course profile consisted of a 95 day course followed by three further 5 day interventions over the full 2 year probationary period. The total cost of training a police officer under this model was estimated at  £16,694 (the Met, 2011). These figures are in addition to a starting wage in the region of  £28,000 –  £32,000 per annum, housing allowance, contributions to private health care, free eye tests/spectacles and a London based Police Officer could expect to receive an additional  £6,500 per annum (The Met, 2012). In 2009-2010,  £1 from every  £7 of tax paid in England and Wales was used to pay a Police pension (The Telegraph, 2012). It is difficult to determine an accurate figure as to the raw cost of just one Officer per annum. However, when you begin to assess a similar monetary breakdown for a private contractor conducting a policing activity, such as a public space CCTV operator, the costs are poles apart. Individuals can complete a 30 hour course that will impart sufficient specialised knowledge for the user to be deemed competent and ‘possess the legal and technical expertise to operate CCTV systems according to the latest industry standards and the BS standard’, for a cost of approximately  £150 (AAB Training, 2012). Following the introduction of the Private Security Industry Act in 2001, to legally operate CCTV within a public space, operators must hold a current SIA licence, available at a cost of  £220 (SIA, Home Office, 2012). In a recent paper the Home Secretary, Right Honorable Theresa May MP (2010), claimed that: ‘Spending on the police has increased by 24% in real terms since 2000/01 and stands at  £13 billion a year today. Over the past decade the focus on public spending has been on money rather than value for money†¦ Government and police forces have wasted money.’ In the UK, Police are continually trying to ensure that there is a â€Å"visible presence†, a member of the uniformed police, on the streets. However in 1985 Bayley documented that in the United States of America, due to ‘staffing and deployment rules, 10 additional officers must be hired in order to get one extra uniformed police officer on the streets around the clock throughout the year’ (Bayley 1985, as cited in Bayley and Shearing, 1996). They continue to state that the incremental cost of a unit of â€Å"visible presence† on American streets is, therefore, about $500,000 – 10 times a patrol officer’s average annual salary plus benefits (Bayley and Shearing, 1996). More recently in the UK financial constraints on the public Police have resulted in numerous cases of ‘outsourcing’ of back room and support staffing from the private sector. G4S have won several contracts to support the Police including a support services contract with the Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire and Hertfordshire Constabularies. Managing Director of G4S Policing Support Services, John Shaw states: ‘Clearly in these times of austerity forces are investigating alternative ways of delivering the support services that underpin effective and efficient police operations and we are confident that by working with G4S the three forces will be able to make considerable savings which they will be able to redirect to frontline policing (G4S, 2012)’. ‘Many UK forces face budget cuts and had considered outsourcing work to save cash and bridge a 126 million pound funding gap.’ (Reuters 2012). As we can see, budgetary constraints have forced the public Police to investigate various options in order to maintain society’s persistent desire to see the Police force ‘policing’, as in on the streets. This need to reassess and outsource has naturally left a ‘grey area’ in the classification between the state, tax funded, public Police force and commercial, private policing bodies. Loader’s (2000) theory, that this shift in approach, ‘Police to policing’, is a transformation. He describes policing bodies that range from Government Police, through to ‘hybrid’ agencies, government provided services including CCTV monitoring etc. etc. (Loader, 2000, as cited in Mazerolle and Ransley, 2005). In 2003, following a Government Green paper, Policing: Building safer communities together (Tim Newburn, 2012), the first key, high profile, ‘hybrid’ style organisation designed as an integral support unit to the Police was formed. Whilst the Serious Organised Crime Agency (SOCA) was created and is funded by the central Government it remains operationally independent of the Police. Again a ‘grey area’ emerges as recruitment is often from within the various established Police departments, NCIS, NCS MI5. The emergence of such hybrid policing is one of the largest and least studied changes affecting law enforcement. Largely as a result of privatisation and contracting-out, Britain now has the following semi-private, semi-public bodies: the Atomic Energy Agency Police; the Transport Police; the Customs and Excise Investigation Division; the National Rivers Authority, the Post Office Investigation Department; and so on and on (The Economist, 1997). Whilst many see the ever increasing ‘privatisation’ of the public Police force and their roles, it is important to remember that this is not a new concept. Private security agencies have been assisting in law and order in the UK for centuries; many have come to rely on them, seeing them as an integral part of homeland security. The Shadow Home Secretary, Yvette Cooper, recently stated that the future of policing should be based upon the principles set out by Sir John Peel, suggesting that ‘Public–private partnerships can be really important for the police, especially on things like new technology, and the police will need new contracts (The Telegraph, 2012)’. On one hand the continued employment of private sector personnel to conduct backroom and technical policing activities fulfills the need of Police Officers to be seen to be ‘policing’ however in doing so it fuels the fire for the pluralisation and ‘hybrid’ policing bodies that are becoming increasingly common throughout the UK. As Button suggests ‘Policing has become pluralized. Police are no longer the primary crime-deterrent presence in society; they have been supplanted by more numerous private providers of security (Bayley and Shearing 1996: 588).’ In conclusion, there are many things that have shaped and changed the way in which the Police force operate and the manner in which they uphold the law. However, the role of the Police Officer has changed dramatically over the years, the UK population has increased exponentially, they have faced severe manning and budgetary cutbacks, coupled with the rapid pace of evolving criminality, all of which have forced the Police to assess what are the core functions that cannot be filled by anyone other than a uniformed, lawful, Police Officer with powers of arrest. As a result out sourcing to experts and or backroom personnel is rapidly becoming the norm. In essence Button’s claim is true, due to financial constraints and social change, the public Police are no longer the primary policing force, more accurately it is a ‘hybrid’ of both the public Police assisted by numerous private and Governmental agencies. References AAB Training, (2012), ‘CCTV Training Courses’, http://www.aabtraining.co.uk/security_training/cctv_training.php, (Accessed 30th October 2012) Button, M. (2002) Private Policing, Cullompton: Willan David H. Bayley; Clifford D. Shearing (1996), ‘The Future of Policing’, Law & Society Review, Vol. 30, No. 3, 585-606 G4S (2012), ‘Electronic monitoring for Scottish Government’, http://www.g4s.uk.com/en-GB/Media%20Centre/News/2012/09/21/Electronic%20monitoring%20for%20Scottish%20Government/, (Accessed 17th October 2012) G4S (2012), ‘History’, http://www.g4s.uk.com/en-GB/Who%20we%20are/History/, (Accessed 17th October 2012) G4S (2012), ‘Police outsourcing statement’, http://www.g4s.uk.com/en-GB/Media%20Centre/News/2012/08/22/Police%20outsourcing%20statement/, (Accessed 17th October 2012) John Houghton, (2012) â€Å"The â€Å"not so new† plans to privatise policing†, Safer Communities, Vol. 11 Iss: 4, 191 – 194 Les Johnston (1992) in David J. Smith and Alistair Henry, (2007), ‘Transformations of Policing’, The Trajectory of Private Policing, Ashgate Publishing, Ltd Loader, (2000), From Police to policing: transformation and pluralisation, in L. Mazerolle and J. Ransley (2005), ‘Third Party Policing: Cambridge’, 19 Reuters (2012), ‘West Midlands police latest to axe outsourcing plans’, http://uk.reuters.com/article/2012/11/22/uk-britain-police-outsourcing-idUKBRE8AL0BB20121122, (Accessed 22 November 2012) Security HR (date unknown), ‘Public Police and Private Security’, Impact of Blurred Boundaries on Accountability ‘Gap’, http://www.securityhr.co.uk/Private-Security-and-Public-Police-Blurring-Boundaries.pdf, (Accessed 19th October 2012) SIA, Home Office, (2012), ‘Public Space Surveillance (CCTV)’, http://www.sia.homeoffice.gov.uk/Pages/licensing-cctv.aspx, (Accessed 30th October 2012) The Economist, (1997), ‘Welcome to the new world of private security’, http://www.economist.com/node/86147, (Accessed 30th October 2012) The Guardian (2012), ‘Police Federation vice-chairman says privatisation could destroy service’, http://www.guardian.co.uk/uk/2012/mar/03/police-federation-vice-chairman-warn ing, (Accessed 19th October 2012) The Metropolitan Police Force (2011), ‘Directorate of Human Resources’, http://www.met.police.uk/foi/pdfs/disclosure_2011/may/2011040001974.pdf, (Accessed 19th October 2012) The Metropolitan Police Force (2012), ‘New Constable’, http://www.metpolicecareers.co.uk/newconstable/pay_and_benefits.html, (Accessed 29th October 2012) The Telegraph, (2012), ‘Police pensions unaffordable as tax payer contributions near 2Bn’, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/finance/personalfinance/pensions/9110995/Police-pensions-unaffordable-as-taxpayer-contributions-near-2bn.html, (Accessed 29th October 2012) The Telegraph, (2012), ‘We don’t want private companies patrolling the streets’, http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/politics/labour/9584002/Yvette-Cooper-We-do-not-want-private-companies-patrolling-the-streets.html, (Accessed 30th October 2012) Theresa May MP, (2010), ‘Home Office’, Policing in the 21st century: Reconnecting Police and the people, http://www.homeoffice.gov.uk/publications/consultations/policing-21st-century/policing-21st-full-pdf?view=Binary, (Accessed 30th October 2012) Tim Newburn, (2008), ‘Handbook of policing’, Policing since 1945, Willian, Second edition. 100 Treveor Jones and Tim Newburn, (2006), Plural Policing: A Comparative Study. Routledge, 1 Trevor Jones and Tim Newburn (1994), ‘The Transformation of Policing’, understanding current trends in policing, The Centre for Crime and Justice

FedEx Companys Marketing Recommendations

FedEx Companys Marketing Recommendations Overview FedEx has enjoyed regional dominance in parcel and cargo deliver in Southern China for a couple of years. When it entered Chinese market in 1995, FedEx enjoyed a brief monopoly of international deliveries in Southern China. It also had a stake in Hong Kong and other Cities in mainland China.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on FedEx Companys Marketing Recommendations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More With at least 11 weekly flights to and from Hong Kong, Beijing, Shanghai, Guangzhou and Shenzhen, FedEx had a considerable Market Share in U.S.-China delivery. While entering Chinese market in 1995, FedEx opted for frontal-assault marketing strategy which was used in Europe in 1980s. The strategy was successful despite the Asian devaluation currency in 1997. However, the company recorded its first international quarterly loss in 2008. The 2008 loss and poor deliveries to China ware expected to be compensated by increased Chinese export to western countries especially the United States. The company had nearly locked out competitors from southern China market of Guangzhou and Shenzhen which represented the largest manufacturing base in China. FedEx controlled over 13% of international deliveries in the region by 2001. It faced stiff competition from UPS, DHL, TNT and China post EMS international delivery express. It is now necessary for it to protect its market from competitors and venture into new ones. However, domestic express deliveries have been limited by bureaucracy and biased regulations from Chinese Communist Party government with the aim of shielding local investors and China Post from international competition. Competitors like DHL and UPS entered joint ventures with Chinese firms like Sinotrans and China Post. China joined World Trade Organization and agreed to remove some regulations by 2005. This would allow fair competition between local and international delivery companies. C ompetitors have entered agreements and bought local Chinese firms with hope of capitalizing on the situation.Advertising Looking for case study on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Recommendation 1 FedEx should venture into un-tapped market in remote Parts of China though increased investment. Justification The Chinese economy accounts for slightly over 1% of world economy but its growth rate is one of the highest with an average of over 10% in the last few years. Several cities in China rely on local companies to deliver parcels and cargo to international destinations. However, the parcels and cargo take several days to reach their destinations. Furthermore, Southen Chinese cities are increasing their manufacturing capacities which increase their exports too. Therefore, most business establishments require fast delivery services for mails and cargo. Although competitors like UPS and DHL have been expanding their markets recently, there are enough opportunities for expansion. The investment should be based on the agreement between China and WTO to full deregulate domestic markets and lift foreign ownership restriction on local businesses by the year 2005. International companies can buy local firms or establish joint investments with Chinese citizens. FedEx can capitalize on this situation to expand its market to other Chinese cities which require international deliveries on daily basis. Implementation Before the final day of full deregulation of domestic markets and lifting of ownership restriction on local businesses, FedEx should keenly follow Chinese government steps towards achieving the WTO target. During every deregulation step, FedEx should invest to ensure that it is ahead of its main competitors. Meanwhile, it should continue offering quality services to its current customers and expand in its traditional market of southern China. Continued quality services will ear n FedEx recommendation to new companies and those experiencing delayed or poor delivery services offered by other companies. Recommendation 2 FedEx should enter into joint ventures with existing companies which have reliable networks within China.Advertising We will write a custom case study sample on FedEx Companys Marketing Recommendations specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Justification Transport and communication infrastructure is not fully developed in China. This means that there are several cities, towns and villages which are hard to gain access to yet they require delivery services. However, State owned China Post and some private companies have been operating in these areas for several years despite the poor accessibility. FedEx can make use of these organisations to reach customers who have not gained access to reliable international delivery services. United Postal Services has gained access to the southern China through Ya ngtze River Express Airlines. DHL has acquired some percentage of Sinotrans to make it competitive in the region. FedEx can counter ths competition by enhancing relationship with its existing partners and enter into agreements with new ones. Since TNT was expected to end its engagement with Sinotrans by 2003. FedEx can capitalize on that and enter into business agreements with Sinotrants to fill the gap left by TNT. Although TNT is entering into joint venture with a subsidiary of China Post, customers who relied on its venture with Sinotrants will be left without reliable delivery service. This is a good opportunity for FedEx to explore. Implementation FedEx must establish weather partners are reliable or not before it enter into joint ventures with them. This will ensure that their reliable and quality services are not jeopardized. Back ground check should be carried out before an agreement is reached to keep off companies with poor public approval in their areas of operation. Alte rnately, FedEx can identify local courier and delivery companies which can be trusted by customers in their respective areas and then enter into joint ventures with them. Finally, when the company has established enough links with customers, it can improve its services while it introduces other competitive services to their new customers.

Valentines Day Quotes to Share with Our Friends

Valentines Day Quotes to Share with Our Friends Valentines Day is primarily for lovers. But you can also celebrate Valentines Day with your friends. Strengthen the bond of friendship with a simple act of love. Let your friend know how much you enjoy his or her companionship with these Valentines Day quotes for friends. Why We Need Friends It is important to remember our friends on Valentines Day, because they are close to our hearts, wherever they are, however long its been since weve seen them. And thats because... Friends are as companions on a journey, who ought to aid each other to persevere in the road to a happier life. - Greek philosopher PythagorasA friend is our alter ego - Greek philosopher ZenoA friend is a second self - Greek philosopher AristotleLove unlocks doors and opens windows that werent even there before. - American journalist Mignon McLaughlin, The Second Neurotics NotebookMiracles occur naturally as expressions of love. The real miracle is the love that inspires them. In this sense, everything that comes from love is a miracle. - American author Marianne WilliamsonThe cure for all ills and wrongs, the cares, the sorrows and the crimes of humanity, all lie in the one word love. It is the divine vitality that everywhere produces and restores life. - American abolitionist Lydia Maria ChildWalking with a friend in the dark is better than walking alone in the light. - Helen KellerHe who loves 50 people has 50 woes; he who loves no one has no woes. - Buddha, founder of Bu ddhism Why Friendship Is Better Than Love Lets face it: in our long lives, lovers come and go; love grows and fades and grows again. So there are significant reasons why our friends fill the gap that our lovers cant. Whether we have lovers or not, we still need friendship. Friendship always benefits; love sometimes injures. - Roman Stoic philosopher SenecaThere is an important difference between love and friendship. While the former delights in extremes and opposites, the latter demands equality. - Francoise DAubegne Maintenon, second wife to Louis XIV of FranceLove is life. And if you miss love, you miss life. - American writer Leo BuscagliaFriendship marks a life even more deeply than love. Love risks degenerating into obsession, friendship is never anything but sharing. - American political activist Elie WieselFriendship is really the finest balm for the pangs of disappointed love. - British writer Jane Austen, Northanger Abbey.A friend who is far away is sometimes much nearer than one who is at hand. - Lebanese poet Kahlil Gibran Lovers as Friends Sometimes, if were very lucky, our lovers are also our best friends. Come, let us take our fill of love until the morning: let us solace ourselves with loves. - Bible (Book of Proverbs)Love is friendship, friendship is love. If love fails, friendship should remain. For friendship is the foundation of love. - Author UnknownMy love, you know you are my best friend. You know that Id do anything for you, and my love, let nothing come between us. My love for you is strong and true. - American songwriter Sarah McLachlanWe loved with a love that is more than love. - American novelist and poet Edgar Allan Poe, Annabel LeeTwo souls with but a single thought, /Â  Two hearts that beat as one. - Austrian poet Friedrich HalmWho would give a law to lovers? Love is unto itself a higher law. - Roman philosopher Boethius Lessons on Being a Friend We all need our friends; but how do we fulfill our side of the bargain? If you judge people, you have no time to love them. - Albanian-Indian Roman Catholic nun and missionary Mother TeresaLove does not dominate; it cultivates. - German writer and statesman Johann Wolfgang von GoetheSome people care too much, I think its called love. - fictional friend of A.A. Milnes young son Winnie the PoohWeve got this gift of love, but love is like a precious plant. You cant just accept it and leave it in the cupboard or just think its going to get on by itself. Youve got to keep watering it. Youve got to really look after it and nurture it. - British songwriter John LennonYou dont love someone for their looks or their clothes, or for their fancy car, but because they sing a song only you can hear. - British poet and playwright Oscar Wilde

The GlaxoSmithKline Company Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

The GlaxoSmithKline Company - Case Study Example The company has had strategies which aim at meeting the needs of the consumers both locally and internationally. However in the international markets GlaxoSmithKline Company adapted various strategies which take into account the cultural backgrounds of the consumers, the consumers buying habits and also the consumer's levels of their personal disposable income. This has enabled the company to further deliver a well tailored program for its marketing mix globally to suit the needs of the consumers. Unlike its domestic marketing mix GlaxoSmithKline Company which is a global player has adapted their product as well as their marketing mix strategy so as to meet the needs of the global customers. The standardization strategy for this company helps it in reducing its costs and this is because it thinks global thus helping it in establishing itself in the foreign markets. (GlaxoSmithKline Company 2007) On the other hand the domestic marketing mix of the company focuses on strategies that would help in meeting the needs of the local and also regional consumers. This does not require a lot of input as it does in the international markets. ... The company highly emphasizes on advertising its products globally and its strategies to achieve their advertising goals ensure that the issues of the language barriers are well taken care of. Similarly the company in its international promotion strategies ensures that their advertising messages are not offensive in any way to the residents of the other countries. In its international promotional strategies GlaxoSmithKline Company takes a lot of concern in the level of the media development in various countries. The company has further adapted a strategy of adapting its advertising messages to the international markets so that it can successfully meet the demands of the consumers. On the other hand in the domestic marketing mix the company has adapted the domestic promotional strategies and it does not have to lay a lot of emphasis on the language barriers as in the case of the international marketing promotional strategies. International pricing strategies GlaxoSmithKline Company has also adapted some international pricing strategies which has eased the international pricing difficulties. It puts into considerations factors such as the fixed and the variable costs, the company's objectives, the competition, the proposed company's positioning strategies as well as the target group and the willingness of the consumers to pay for the products. Similarly the company in the international pricing strategies makes considerations on the cost of transportation and it also looks into the import duties or even tariffs that could be levied on its products as they are sold on an international scale. (GlaxoSmithKline Company 2007) On the other hand the company makes considerations on the incomes of the international customers

Culture, History, and Literature Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Culture, History, and Literature - Essay Example In this novel, Morrison uses his characters to reveal the unsolved contradictions of American racial history as well as the persistent ideologies of slavery that shaped the identity and sense of self among many Americans. The racial formations and the dominant ideology of slavery in the American culture that threatens the society’s founding promise of equal opportunity is well portrayed through the character of Frank. The direction and purpose of Frank’s journey in the novel focuses on the cultural hegemony that is fuelled by the racial subordination and inequality in the society. â€Å"A race is a concept that signifies and symbolizes social conflicts and interests.† (Omi and Winant 118). Since race is seen as an element of social structure and a dimension of human representation, racial formation implies the process of transformation of racism in a period. This racial formation is said to be evolved through a social and cultural hegemony that is organized and represented by the then society. In this sense, it can be analyzed that the society presented by Morrison in her novel Home includes the nature of racism through social prejudices, differences, inequalities, and violent oppression. As evident in the novel, various social conflicts and prejudices within the society implies the existence or formation of race. The American understanding of the ideology of race has changed over the time, affecting the perceptions and experiences of African-Americans. Particularly, after the era of Reconstruction that insisted civic equality and freedom, the American society embraced a new ideological formation of racial subordination, which presented challenges to the racial status quo that existed then. The racial inequalities resulting from the social ideologies are presented in Morrison’s novel, using characterizations,

Green Efforts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Green Efforts - Essay Example Having a proper understanding related with the environment around us is indeed important as far as a firm’s business operations and processes are concerned. This is because going green could mean cutting down on costs in a very strict way. It is a fact that a firm could look to have a campaign in place which tells everyone that this firm is pretty serious about the environments of which humanity is a part of. The green efforts will surely give a very positive feedback by the people who understand the perspective of this firm. The critics will keep on suggesting the internal mistakes and faults but the firm must be determined and solid in its stance no matter how tough the criticism turns out to be. Even the competitors can hit upon this area more and more. But this usually works to the benefit of such a firm which has actually decided to go green. It can suggest to the publics how the competitors are failing on their expectations of being environmentally clean and thus gain a higher position within their minds and hearts. Going green would make the stakeholders realize the true worth of a firm. They would generally appreciate the idea that led towards going green. They will understand the true spirit behind going green as well. At times, they would even be ready to invest more within the firm’s domains in order to come out as the winners, speaking strictly within the rat race that the firms have involved themselves of going green. However this is not a bad race to join in the first place. It could have serious positive meanings for the firm as well as for the environment. The broad perspective needs to be understood more than anything else (Boons & Strannegard, 2000). If it is benefiting the environment, there is absolutely nothing which could go against such going green efforts by the firm. Thus going green is definitely a positive sign for a firm which has

Literature Review On Foreign Direct Investment

Literature Review On Foreign Direct Investment The theory of the determinants of private investment, irrespective of whether it originates domestically or from abroad, is relevant for an understanding of what drives FDI. This has become increasingly true with the globalisation of world markets, although there remain additional factors which may inhibit or encourage FDI that would not affect domestic investment. Much of the research on the determinants of investment is based on the neoclassical theory of optimal capital accumulation pioneered by Jorgenson (1963, 1971). In this framework, a firms desired capital stock is determined by factor prices and technology, assuming profit maximisation, perfect competition and neoclassical production functions. This theory was a deliberate alternative to views expressed initially by Keynes (1936) and Kalecki (1937), that fixed capital investment Much of the research on the determinants of investment is based on the neoclassical theory of optimal capital accumulation pioneered by Jorgenson (1963, 1971). In this framework, a firms desired capital stock is determined by factor prices and technology, assuming profit maximisation, perfect competition and neoclassical production functions. This theory was a deliberate alternative to views expressed initially by Keynes (1936) and Kalecki (1937), that fixed capital investment depends on firms expectations of demand relative to existing capacity and on their ability to generate investment funds (Fazzari and Athey, 1987:481; Fazzari and Mott, 1986:171). Several studies have challenged the neoclassical assumption that any desired investment project can be financed2. Asymmetric information3 about the quality of a loan could lead to credit rationing, implying that not all borrowers seeking loans at the prevailing cost of capital may be able to obtain financing (e.g, Greenwald, Stiglitz and Weiss, 1984). Consequently, firms tend to rely on internal sources of funds to finance investment, and to prefer debt to equity if external financing is required4. A further theoretical development was the introduction of irreversibility and uncertainty in explaining investment behaviour. This literature demonstrates that the ability to delay an irreversible investment expenditure can profoundly affect the decision to invest (Dixit, 1989; Pindyck, 1991:1110). Firms have an i ncentive to postpone irreversible investment while they wait or new information which makes the future less uncertain (Bernanke, 1983; Cukierman, 1980). The development literature has long been concerned with investment, because of its importance for the rate of growth of per capita output in the economy (Dornbusch and Reynoso, 1989:204; Fei and Ranis, 1963:283; IMF, 1988). Although empirical models of the determinants of investment in developing countries are in broad agreement with results obtained for industrialised countries, there are additional factors which have been found to constrain capital accumulation. Most of these are related to the problem of uncertainty and/or risk, which acts as a disincentive to private investment, because of the irreversible nature of most investment expenditures (Pindyck, 1991). Inflation reduces private investment by increasing risk, reducing average lending maturities, distorting the informational content of relative prices, and indicating macroeconomic instability (Dornbusch and Reynoso, 1989:206-208; Oshikoya, 1994:585,590). Empirical studies show that the variability of inflation has a stronger negative effect on private investment than does the level (Serven and Solimano, 1993:137). Large external debt burdens also have a strong disincentive effect on private investment, especially short-term debt (Faruqee, 1992:52). Debt-service payments reduce the domestic resources available for investment, and poor international creditworthiness reduces access to foreign savings5. For domestic investors, the existence of a large debt overhang reduces the future returns to investment because a high proportion of the forthcoming returns must be used to repay existing debt (Borensztein, 1990:315). A debt overhang is also a major source of uncertainty: the size of future transfers to creditors is uncertain; macroeconomic policy is uncertain; and the exchange rate is uncertain. The combined risks of changes in relative prices, taxation and aggregate demand reduces investment by both domestic and foreign entrepreneurs. Whatever the cause, the irreversibility of real capital expenditures can result in underinvestment if the future is uncertain, even when current conditions are righ t (Tornell, 1990). During macroeconomic adjustment, the credibility of policy changes is an added problem (Rodrik,1989), and the possibility of policy reversal can have serious consequences for real private capital expenditures. Investors prefer to hold financial capital, which is easier to realise if conditions turn out to be adverse, and which retains the option to purchase real capital if optimism continues. For this reason, there are frequently long lags in the investment response to adjustment(Serven and Solimano, 1993:131,137). Several studies report the effects of changes in the real exchange rate6 and the terms of trade7 on investment. These studies generally find that the variability of the real exchange rate is usually Some researchers support the notion that FDI contributes to the productivity and growth of local enterprises. Blomstrom and Sjoholm( 1998) are of the opinion that the productivity and growth of local enterprises could be achieved through spill over effects/externalities from FDI. This is achieved as the Multinational Enterprises (MNEs) either introduce superior technology of through the marketing activities of MNEs that affect the market equilibrium forcing local operators to act in such way that they can retain their original market shares. Graham and Krugman (1995) indicates that competitive enterprises (MNEs) contribute to productivity and growth of the host nation by infusing technology, labour skills, management methods, and training into the host economy. Empirical research shows that FDI affects the economy of a host country in a variety of ways. Firstly, it provides the required capital and state -of -the- art technology that enhances economic growth in the host country (Caves,1996; Dunning, 1993; Blomstrom and Sjoholm, 1998; Smarzynska,2002; Akinkugbe ,2005). Secondly, it augments the skills of the host nations and thus stimulates growth through the infusion of managerial, labour skills and training (de Mello,1999). Thirdly it promotes the technological upgrading, regarding start- up, marketing , and licensing arrangements (de Mello and Sinclair , 1995 ; Markusen and Venables ,1999). FDI is thus seen as a catalyst to the host nations economic growth and development as it enhances technological process and promotes industrial development (Asheghian, 2004). In addition, FDI can be expected to encourage economic growth of the host nation, given the prevailing view that MNEs can complement the local industry and stimulate growth and welfare in the host nations (Grossman and Helpman, 1991; Barro and Sala-i-Martin, 1995). The major determinants of the host countrys economic development and growth is the economic environment portrayed by its rate of economic growth , trade policy, political stability, legislation , domestic market size and balance of payments constraints (Caves, 1996; de Mello, 1999; Dunning, 1993)- the political economy of the nation . These factors may inevitably influence the decision of foreign investors (MNEs ) on the possible choice of a viable investment location (Akinkugbe, 2005). Dunnings (1981, 1988) electric theory provides a flexible and popular framework where it is argued that Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) is determined by three sets of advantages which direct investment should have over the other institutional mechanisms available for a firm in satisfying the needs of its customers at home and abroad. The first of the advantages is the ownership specific one which includes the advantage that the firm has over its rivals in terms of its brand name, patent or knowledge of technology and marketing. This allows firms to compete with the other firms in the markets it serves regardless of the disadvantages of being foreign. The second is the internationalisation advantage, that is why a bundled FDI approach is preferred to unbundled product licensing, capital lending or technical assistance (Wheeler and Mody, 1992). The location-specific advantages relate to the importance for the firm to operate and invest in the host country and are those advantages that make the chosen foreign country a more attractive site for FDI than the others. For instance firms may invest in production facilities in foreign markets because transportation costs are too high to serve these markets through exports. This could either be directly related to the actual nature of the good, either being a high bulk item or a service that needs to be provided on site, or due to policy factors such as tariff rates, import restrictions, or issues of market access that makes physical investment advantageous over serving the market through exports. Location advantage also embodies other characteristic (economic, institutional and political) such as large domestic markets, availability of natural resources, an educated labor force, low labor cost, good institutions (the clarity of countrys law, efficiency of bureaucracy and the absen ce of corruption), political stability, corporate and other tax rates among others. Bende-Nabende and Slater (1998) investigate both the short-run and long-run locational determinants of FDI under the broad categories of cost-related, investment environment improving and other macroeconomic factors. The short-run dynamics indicate that European investment in the Thai manufacturing sector has been more responsive to the macroeconomic factors. The long-run dynamics on the other hand suggest that European investment has been more responsive to the investment environment improving factors. In particular, there is evidence to suggest that the Thai manufacturing sector is losing its cost-related comparative advantage. Dar, Presley and Malik (2004) studied the causality and long-term relationship between Foreign Dirct Investment (FDI), economic growth and other socio-political determinants. Although a considerable literature gives the evidence of relationship between FDI and economic growth. Their paper considers economic growth, exchange rate and level of interest rates, unemployment, and political stability as determinants of the level of FDI inflows for Pakistan over the period 1970-2002. Almost all variables are found to have the theoretically expected signs with two-way causality relationship. The present study also estimates an error correction model by ordinary least squares, based on cointegrating VAR (2). Nunnenen (2002) argues that there is a startling gap between, allegedly, globalization-induced changes in international competition for foreign direct investment (FDI) and recent empirical evidence on the relative importance of determinants of FDI in developing countries. He shows that surprisingly little has changed since the late 1980s. Traditional market-related determinants are still dominant factors. Among non-traditional FDI determinants, only the availability of local skills has clearly gained importance. As concerns the interface between trade policy and FDI, he finds that the tariff jumping motive for FDI had lost much of its relevance well before globalization became a hotly debated issue. Artige and Nicolini (2005) analyse the determinants of FDI (foreign direct investment) inflows for a group of European regions. The originality of their approach lies in the use of disaggregated regional data. First, they develop a qualitative description of their database and discuss the importance of the macroeconomic determinants in attracting FDI. Then, they provide an econometric exercise to identify the potential determinants of FDI. In spite of choosing regions presenting economic similarities, they show that regional FDI inflows rely on a combination of factors that differs from one region to another. Bà ©nassy-Quà ©rà ©, Coupet and Mayer (2007) re-examine the role of institutions in the host and in the source country by estimating a gravity equation for bilateral FDI stocks that includes governance indicators for the two countries. Second, they tackle multicollinearity and endogeneity bias by implementing a three-stage procedure for instrumentation and orthogonalisation. Third, they look further into the detail of institutions by using a new database constructed by the French Ministry of Finance network in 52 foreign countries. This database is used to point out in some detail the relevant institutional features. Its country coverage, which focuses on developing countries, is very helpful for studying the impact of the institutional environment of the host country. It does not allow, however, going deeply into the impact of the institutional environment in the source country as well as into the impact of institutional distance. Hence they complement our analysis with estimatio ns based on the Fraser database, which provides fewer details on institutions, albeit on a more balanced country coverage between industrial and developing countries. Finally, they study the impact of institutional distance on bilateral FDI. Onyeiwu and Shrestha (2004) argues that despite economic and institutional reform in Africa during the past decade, the flow of Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) to the region continues to be disappointing and uneven. In their study they use the fixed and random effects models to explore whether the stylized determinants of FDI affect FDI flows to Africa in conventional ways. Based on a panel dataset for 29 African countries over the period 1975 to 1999, their paper identifies the following factors as significant for FDI flows to Africa: economic growth, inflation, openness of the economy, international reserves, and natural resource availability. Contrary to conventional wisdom, political rights and infrastructures were found to be unimportant for FDI flows to Africa. The significance of a variable for FDI flows to Africa was found to be dependent on whether country- and time-specific effects are fixed or stochastic. Nakamura and Oyama (1998) studied the macroeconomic determinants of FDI from Japan and the United States into East Asian countries, and the linkage between FDI and trade, and other macroeconomic variables. Their analysis focuses on the structural differences among East Asian counties and classifies them based on statistical tests of fixed effects models using panel data. This examination helps to clarify how Japanese and American multinational firms position their production bases in East Asian countries within their world marketing strategies. In order to avoid the problem of simultaneity among variables, they examine simultaneous equation models to confirm the validity of panel regression results. In their study they find that East Asian countries can be classified into four groups depending on FDI from Japan and other elasticities to macroeconomic variables, and this grouping almost coincides with their economic development stages. Moreover, they confirm that FDI from Japan into a ll the groups are strongly affected by changes in real bilateral exchange rates, but this is not always the case for FDI from the United States. Among different country groups, FDI into group 1 (Taiwan and Korea) responds positively to the Japanese capacity utilization, indicating their industries integration with the Japanese economy. Group 3 (Indonesia and the Philippines) shows that Japanese FDI is buoyed up by the yens appreciation against the U.S. dollar. FDI into group 4 (China and Malaysia) and, to a lesser extent, group 2 (Singapore and Thailand) is oriented more toward capturing local markets compared to the other groups. They also find that Japanese FDI has strong trade expansion effects, which is rarely seen for U.S. FDI. With regards to research on the determinants of FDI to Africa there appears to be a dearth of literature. A Search on the Econlit database using Foreign Direct Investment and Africa as keywords yielded the other two reffered journal articles on the Determinants of FDI to Africa. One of the papers, Schoeman et al (2000), analyses how government policy (mainly deficits and taxes) affects FDI. However, their analysis focuses on one country, South Africa. The Second paper , Asiedu (2002) examines whether the factors that drive FDI in developing countries have a different impact on for countries in Sub Sahara Africa (SSA). However, the analysis focuses only on three variables the return on investment, infrastructure availability and openness to trade, and does not take into account the natural resource availability , which is an important determinant of FDI to Africa. Another paper that focuses exclusively on Africa is Morisset (2000). Unlike Asiedu (2002), Morisset (2000) controls for natural resource availability , measured by the sum of primary and secondary sectors , minus manufacturing. However, this measure of natural resources is too broad and does not accurately capture the availability of minerals and oil, the most important types of natural resources relevant for FDI to SSA. In addition none of the studies examine the impact of some of the important variables that feature predominantly in investor surveys, such as corruption and regulatory framework in the host country. This research extends the limited to empirical literature on the determinants of FDI to Africa by examining the extent to which the economic, political, institutional characteristics of a country, as well as the policy environment affect FDI flows. Nunnekamp (2002) sought to assess whether determinants of FDI have changed with globalisation i.e whether traditional determinants are losing importance whilst non traditional ones are increasingly gaining importance. Two approaches were adopted, namely survey data from European Round Table of Industrialists ( ERT 2000) and simple correlation for 28 developing countries. Market size (proxied by host countrys population and level of GDP ) as a traditional determinant of FDI is said to have declined in importance over time. Other factors such as location, cost differences, qualities of infrastructure, ease of doing business and the availability of skills measured by average years of schooling have become increasingly important as non-traditional determinants of FDI (Nunnekamp 2002:16) The survey results were supplemented by World Bank Data on variables that are considered important FDI determinants. Results show that traditional market related determinants still dominate determinants of FDI distribution among the countries considered (Nunnekamp 2002:24). Non traditional determinants such as cost factors, and trade openness , measured by ratio of exports plus imports to GDP, have typically not become more important with globalisation. Of importance is the availability of skills which is proxied by average years of schooling, which has become a relevant pull factor of FDI in the process of globalisation (Nunnekamp 2002:35). An analysis of a developing country by (Tsai 1991) focused on Taiwan by providing demand size determinants of FDI using time series data. Tsai (1991:279) employed OLS method using equations in logarithm form. Two equations were specified, i.e first on the demand size determinants and the second using variables as ratio of GDP to eliminate possible side of influences. A dummy variable was used to assess the impact of government incentive polices on FDI in different periods. Tsai (1991:276) suggests that for Taiwan only labour cost, market size and government incentive policies are important demand size determinants. Although FDI is seen to exploit cheap labour in developing countries, the case of Taiwan seems to show that growth in FDI with rising labour costs indicates the cheap labour may not be as important as expected. No clear evidence was found to support the expectation that government incentive policies were effective in attracting FDI to Taiwan. An interesting finding in Tsai (1991:279) is that Taiwans relatively outstanding economic performance as reflected in the expanding domestic market and ever increasing per capita GDP during 1965-1985 was not particularly attractive to foreign investors. As Tsai argues, this could be attributed to FDI being used supply side determined rather than demand side or perhaps non- economic factors outweigh the investment incentives. It is generally believed that factors determine FDI inflow in developing countries could have a different impact on SSA countries in particular . This is because developing countries outside Africa seem to attract huge FDI inflow while SSA attracts low levels of FDI as discussed by Asiedu (2002). Another study in Africa by Obwona (2001) investigated the FDI-growth linkage for Uganda. Obwona used the investor surveys approach and econometric tests. Using investor surveys, both local and foreign investors were directly questioned regarding their decisions and decision making processes when investing in Uganda (Obwona 2001:55). The focus was on productive investment, as such purely commercial and consulting activities were excluded. For econometric tests , time series data was used for the period 1975-1991to estimate the determinants of FDI and growth. Findings from the survey showed that increased foreign investment was a result of a conducive investment environment provided by government though its policies and institutions (Obwona 2001:56). The author concludes that from the investors surveyed, foreign investors are primarily concerned with fundamental factors, i.e a stable macroeconomic and political situation and credible policy reforms. For Uganda , Obwona considered pull factors such as growth factors , liberalised exchange rate, low inflation and fiscal discipline. The major determinants are availability and cost of natural and human resources, adequacy of infrastructure , market size, trade policies, macro stability, economic growth and political stability (Obwona 2001:62). The importance of each of these variables , however depends on the type of investment and motivations or strategy of investors. Obwona (2001:62) agrees with other researchers, such as Nunnekamp (2002) that given the shifts in the type of investment, the availability of low cost unskilled labour in location decisions has declined over time. This has meant more emphasis on skilled labour or the trainability of workers. Furthermore, two notable studies by Moolman et al (2006) and Fedderke and Romm (2004) have focused on determinants of Inward FDI to South Africa. Moolman et al (2006) sought to examine the macroeconomic link between FDI in South Africa and its resultant impact on output for the period 1970-2003. In so doing, they initially identified supply side determinants of FDI before analysing their impact on output. Their research method follows the supply side macro econometric framework, which does not take into account the demand side determinants that are equally important as well. On Model specification , five variables were explored as explanatory variables for FDI in the empirical estimation, namely, market size measured by real GDP, exchange rate proxied by the rand-dollar exchange rate , infrastructure, openness and a dummy variable for sanctions. The empirical results of Moolman et al (2006:3) indicate that market size, openness, infrastructure and the nominal exchange rate are factors which South African policy makers should focus on when seeking to attract FDI. The FDI output link does not take other factors such as increased employment , improved skills and new management techniques into account (Moolman et al 2006:29). After thorough investigation and studies, it was found out that only market size and openness are common factor determining FDI. The role of exchange rate is an important determinant of foreign investment in most countries. Particularly for South Africa, it should be considered whether it could be an important FDI determinant. Studies from developing countries have also identified other factors that should be considered as in the case of South Africa as those of Loots (2000) and Ahmed et al (2005).